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Addictive Behaviors. Although reduced sleep had an immediate energy-depleting effect after the first night, it took three nights before need satisfaction was eroded, with a reduction in morning energy and an impaired mindful approach during the day accounting for these effects.
Chen et al. The growth-promoting role of ARC would be constrained among individuals high in physical insecurity because comparatively more resources would be devoted to the satisfaction of safety.
Findings in both samples indicated that all three need satisfactions uniquely predicted well-being above and beyond safety, and moreover, safety did not moderate effects of the basic psychological needs see also Rasskazova et al. One question that could be addressed is whether the perceived psychological threshold for objective conditions of unsafety e. Another possibility is that effects of physiological and safety needs are partially accounted for by ARC.
To illustrate, financial security may create the possibility for individuals to buy themselves the necessary time to pursue their interests, to connect with others, or to pursue the education to improve their skills DeHaan et al.
In contrast, financial difficulties may be a source of pressure and interpersonal tension, which helps to explain why financial difficulties predict poorer well-being.
Over the past two decades, SDT-based research has intensively studied key practices and correlates of need-supportive i. Historically, autonomy support has received the most attention in part because the need for autonomy is both most unique to SDT and most controversial and in part because autonomy-supportive socializing agents tend to be responsive to competence and relatednees needs as well. Initially, autonomy support and control were assessed along a single dimension e.
Parallel to the differentiation between need satisfaction and need frustration, an increasing number of studies have explored the unique and independent contributions of autonomy-supportive and controlling styles e. Also, as acting in an autonomy-supportive way is sometimes perceived to be at odds with setting limits, the question was addressed whether and how an autonomy-supportive style can be combined with structure Jang et al.
It is now very clear that autonomy support and structure are not antithetical. Rather, the setting of expectations Vansteenkiste et al. The study of need-supportive and need-thwarting styles has rapidly grown over the past years, with studies becoming increasingly methodologically sophisticated and at the same time generating novel insights at the conceptual level.
SDT research has from the outset iterated between observational e. As the research evolved, scholars have made use of an increasing variety of methods, including longitudinal designs e. Longitudinal studies spanning different time frames, from a few months to a decade, have now shown that need support predicts adjustment over time, as indexed by improved executive functioning e.
Longitudinal work also reveals that need-relevant socialization and mal adjustment is not a one-way street. For instance, more autonomously motivated Garn et al. Because need-supportive socialization manifests differently in different contexts and at different ages Grolnick et al. While an autonomy-supportive style involves a number of basic practices i.
To illustrate, parental autonomy support and control manifest differently during a puzzle solving task with toddlers e. Observation tools thus need to capture these sometimes subtle differences to be ecologically valid and to maximize the probability of establishing predictive validity.
This idea applies not only to observational tools, but also to questionnaires, an increasing number of which are now tailored to context and sample e. Increasingly, studies are also examining need support and need thwarting at the level of within-person change.
For instance, in sport athletes, both training-to-training Carpentier and Mageau and game-to-game Delrue et al. Day-to-day variations in perceived parental Van der Kaap-Deeder et al. Finally, in more recent years, an increasing number of intervention studies have been conducted Assor et al. These studies indicate that socializing agents can be trained to adopt a more need-supportive style and to move away from a need-thwarting style.
Effective intervention programs for teachers e. Other studies have attempted to refine or extend the list of existing need-supportive and need-thwarting practices. To illustrate, Jang et al. Assor et al. Apart from such extensions and refinements, many studies also consider need-relevant dimensions simultaneously e. Such research reveals that socializing agents capable of nurturing one need often simultaneously support other needs e. Further, using multi-dimensional scaling analyses, greater insights were produced in the way that different need-supportive and need-thwarting practices among teachers Aelterman et al.
This research has resulted in a model with a circumplex structure see Fig. This circumplex serves as a guide or compass for socializing agents because, as can be expected, subareas on the right side in the model i. Vermote et al. Graphical representation of the circumplex model Aelterman et al. Although the circumplex model includes a broad variety of need-supportive and need-thwarting practices, the model is not exhaustive. Taxonomies involving an overview of critical need-relevant practices are now available and can form a basis for enriching the circumplex e.
Also, more novel practices such as being patient with mistakes Jiang et al. The mapping of practices such as directive support i. In addition, the broader dimension of relatedness support e. Further, longitudinal designs will help uncovering whether socializing agents slip from more structuring to more controlling and from more autonomy-supportive to chaotic styles as a function of encountered threats to their needs, personality characteristics, and the broader motivating climate, or whether they shift in more desirable directions as they get trained to adopt a more need-supportive socialization style.
Overall then, the circumplex structure is in need of replication, extension, and refinement in diverse age groups, life domains, and cultures. Considerable care will be required to find out which practices carry the greatest ecological validity in every setting, while preserving theoretical precision.
From a practical viewpoint, such in-depth investigations yield the promise of providing more hands-on guidelines for socializing agents to adopt a need-supportive style in daily practice. The notion that all human beings would share a similar set of basic psychological needs, the satisfaction of which is critical for well-being, flourishing, and psychological growth initially elicited quite some debate. The discussion centered especially on the need for autonomy, the most disputed need.
Although the concept of autonomy had received attention from scholars in the fields of cross-cultural psychology Markus and Schwartz , adolescent development Steinberg and Silverberg , and organizational psychology Warr , their view on autonomy was in many cases more restrictive rather than universal.
Specifically, autonomy was conceived as an attribute that should come only in moderate doses or that would be beneficial only to specific groups of individuals, such as those growing up in individualistic cultures Markus and Kitayama , adolescents who increasingly strive for more self-reliance Zimmer-Gembeck and Collins , and highly educated employees who are socialized in taking initiative and expressing their voice Snibbe and Markus Yet, by conceiving autonomy as a universal psychological need, the claim made in SDT was that any person better thrives when this need is satisfied.
Part of the controversy was due to the conceptual confusion surrounding the notion of autonomy Ryan and Lynch ; Vansteenkiste et al. Chirkov et al. Similarly, studies with Belgian Van Petegem et al. Across these studies, the experience of volition appears to be a more decisive factor in predicting adolescent adjustment than independent decision making as such see also Wilde et al.
In addition to differentiating between autonomy-as-independence and autonomy-as-volition, researchers have increasingly tested the role of each of the three needs across diverse cultural backgrounds. Cross-cultural evidence has now been meta-analytically analyzed with autonomy as defined within BPNT appearing to carry similar benefits for individuals from diverse cultures e. Over the past years an increasing number of studies have examined the role of diverse moderators.
Figure 3 provides an overview of the different places in the context—outcomes sequence in which moderators can be studied.
After briefly introducing this model, we present a number of conclusions to summarize the state-of-the art of the literature and we selectively review empirical work underscoring these conclusions.
The theoretical model shown in Fig. Three features of this model deserve being highlighted. First, the scope of potential moderators of need-based dynamics that are receiving attention has steadily broadened. Also, need-based dynamics have been studied in an increasing number of diverse populations. To illustrate, need-based dynamics now appear critical for individuals with mild intellectual disabilities Frielink et al. In cross-cultural research, this part of the model would be considered etic Kotlak , meaning that the correlates associated with need-based experiences are robust and generalizable across cultural differences Reeve et al.
Yet such structural invariance in the associations between needs and outcomes does not imply that no gradations in the strength of the relations or variations in the type of outcomes are possible. That is, inherent to the practice of need support is that socializing agents take both personal characteristics e. Instead, different ways can lead to Rome, and thus it is important to understand variations in the emic meanings and functions of SDT constructs.
Indeed, within SDT, such emic differences reflect variations in the functional significance Deci and Ryan or meaning that individuals attribute to a need-relevant practice, a meaning that can vary as a function of cultural, socio-demographic, or personality differences. Based on the increasing interest in studying moderators of the effects of need-based experiences, we tentatively present four intermediate conclusions.
Because the study of moderators within BPNT is relatively recent and still ongoing, some conclusions formulated herein may need modification as the field progresses. First, the extant evidence strongly suggests that the explanatory power of the main effects of ARC or ARC-supportive contexts heavily outweighs the supplementary role played by interaction effects.
That is, both the percentage of variance explained by interactions but also the number of obtained interactions is rather limited in most, if not all, studies e. Second, the type of interaction emerging deserves attention. Although there is some evidence for gradations in the strength of the benefits and costs associated with, respectively, subjectively felt basic need satisfaction and need frustration, no evidence for cross-over interactions has emerged.
That is, there is no evidence that individuals suffer from basic need satisfaction, or show gains from frustrations; if anything, the nutritional basis of need satisfaction is more pronounced for some individuals. Third, comparatively more interactions have been identified in the relation between the social context and need-based experiences and outcomes i. Similarly, Big Five personality traits Mabbe et al. Finally, although need frustration and contextual need thwarting are generally detrimental to development and psychological growth, there is some evidence that interindividual differences determine the type of costs associated with need frustration and perceived need-thwarting socialization.
To illustrate, adolescents high and low on trait autonomous functioning experienced a controlling parental request to put out extra effort after poor exams as equally autonomy frustrating, but those high on trait autonomy did not perceive the request as illegitimate, nor did they intend to defy the request, signaling a nuanced pattern of moderation Van Petegem et al.
Similarly, psychologically controlling parenting i. First, theoretical grounds can best form the basis for selecting potential moderators in future research. In this respect, the psychological distance between the independent, moderating, and dependent variable may be taken into consideration; the closer the psychological distance, the greater the probability of finding an interaction pattern.
Indeed, prior work among rope skippers DeMuynck et al. Further, although a number of studies e. For this reason, more narrowly defined and operationalized measures of need strength, tapping into the experience of need desire Sheldon and Gunz or need valuation Chen et al. Nonetheless, their moderating role in the relations between need-based experiences and outcomes still appears to be relatively weak e.
Illustrative in this context is work by Marbell-Pierre et al. Such findings are fully congruent with the circumplex model, which suggests that the attuning approach may be more directly need-nurturing, while the participative approach is merely need-enabling Aelterman et al. Third, also the broader cultural climate may affect the functional significance of specific need-relevant practices. For instance, American compared to Chinese elementary school children perceived a controlling teacher as more hurtful and controlling, which was reflected in their reduced motivation for schoolwork Zhou et al.
Similarly, Chinese adolescents perceive the parental practice of guilt-induction as more benign compared to Belgian teens, yet still as more controlling and autonomy-thwarting compared to autonomy support Chen et al. Not only the broader cultural ambience but also the more immediate family environment may alter the meaning attributed to need-relevant practices.
For example, adolescents who grew up in a home characterized by increasing autonomy-supportive socialization over the years perceived exposure to a new autonomy-supportive, relative to a controlling, encounter with parents as more autonomy satisfying and reacted in more constructive ways to a controlling situation Van Petegem et al. Finally, specific situational features may play a role in altering the perceived meaning and effectiveness of need-supportive and need-thwarting practices.
For instance, in a study among judo athletes, a controlling intervention by a judo coach was perceived as more controlling and harmful when athletes, despite clear efforts, struggled to master a new technique compared to when the athletes were depicted as disturbing the training of their peers Delrue et al. Although a controlling response was less favorable in both situations compared to an autonomy-supportive one, the context of disturbance attenuated some of the costs associated with coach control.
The present overview makes clear that, today, research on basic psychological needs is active and growing. Based on BPNT, the topic of basic psychological needs has been studied by researchers across the world, presumably because it touches upon fundamental theoretical questions regarding our human nature and carries far-reaching practical implications for parents, educators, managers, coaches and other social relationships.
Concern for basic psychological needs also has implications for re organizing schools and work settings, as well as for developing sustainable health care and welfare policies.
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Soenens, M. Petegem Eds. New York: Routledge. Parent styles associated with children's self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81 , — Journal of Educational Psychology, 83 , — Grouzet, F. Is there anything you can do to help the parent overcome these issues? Look out for signs that a parent may be experiencing this from their family, partner or friends. Can you talk to them about how this makes them feel, and what they think they can do to manage the situation?
What factors may be affecting her feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness? Nicola is a single mother with three boys aged 10, 5 and 3 years.
She lives in a council flat on the 10 th floor in a local tower block. Often these foods are cheaper too. When the family are at home the children watch TV most of the time because there is nothing else to do.
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